Ilimin haske (optics)

Ilimin haske, ko optics a Turance, na daga cikin rassan ilmin kimiyyar physics da ke nazarin haske, siffofinsa, da hulɗarsa da abubuwa daban-daban. Wannan fanni yana mayar da hankali kan yadda haske ke watsuwa, dawowa, lanƙwasuwa ko karkata, da canja siffa yayin da yake tafiya a sararin samaniya ko cikin wasu abubuwa. Hasken da ake nazari a optics ya fi mayar da hankali kan hasken da ido ke gani, wanda yake tsakanin 380 zuwa 700 a ma’aunin nanometers (nm), har ila yau fannin yana kuma duba na’urorin lasers da ke aiki a ultraviolet (100–380 nm) da infrared (700 nm zuwa sama).

A aikace, optics yana da matukar muhimmanci wajen fahimtar rayuwa ta yau da kullum da kuma fasaha. Yana taimakawa wajen ƙirƙirar na’urorin hange ko gani kamar lenses, telescopes, microscopes, da fiber-optic communication systems, sannan yana da amfani sosai a fannin likitanci, sadarwa, kimiyyar yanayi, da binciken sararin samaniya. Haka nan, fannin yana da alaƙa da sauran rassan physics, musamman electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, da wave theory, domin haske yana da siffofi na wave da particle a lokaci guda, wanda ake kira wave-particle duality.

Cigaban fannin optics ya samo asali tun zamanin da, inda masana kimiyya irin su Euclid da Ptolemy suka fara nazarin haske da tunanin hangen nesa. A zamanin Renaissance da karni na 17 zuwa na 19, masana kamar Isaac Newton da Christiaan Huygens suka ƙara zurfafa bincike kan particle da wave theory. Daga baya, a farkon karni na 20, Max Planck da Albert Einstein sun bayyana tsarin photon da ka’idojin energy na haske, wanda ya zama tushen quantum optics.

A wannan zamani, optics yana da amfani iri-iri da suka shafi ayyukan idanu, lasers, fiber-optic sadarwa, ɗaukar hoton likitanci, ilimin taurari, da fasahar zamani. Haka nan, fannin yana da matukar muhimmanci wajen horar da masana a physics, engineering, da abubuwan da suka shafi kiwon lafiya, musamman wajen optometry da ophthalmology.

Ma’anar optics

Masana kimiyya da hukumomi sun bayyana ra’ayoyi daban-daban, amma duk suna haɗa mahimmancin nazarin siffofin haske da amfani da shi. Ga misalai daga wasu manyan ra’ayoyi:

Masana physics sun bayyana optics a “matsayin reshe na ilmin kimiyyar da ke nazarin siffofin da tafiyar haske, da yadda yake hulɗa da abubuwa daban-daban. Wannan ya haɗa da reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference, polarization, da scattering, da kuma nazarin photons da wavelengths masu bambanci.”

American Physical Society ta bayyana optics a matsayin “ilimin da ke fahimtar siffofin electromagnetic radiation a cikin visible spectrum da sauran wavelengths, tare da amfani a fannin kiwon lafiya, sadarwa, kamfanoni, da ilimin taurari.” A cewar APS, fahimtar optics yana buɗe hanyar haɓaka fasahohi kamar lasers, fiber optics, da ɗaukar hotunan likitanci.

A fannin lafiya, optics yana nufin “nazarin haske da tsarin gani na ɗan Adam, da yadda za a gyarawa ko inganta aikin idanu. Masana kiwon lafiyar idanu suna amfani da optics wajen ƙirƙirar corrective lenses, contact lenses, da surgical techniques kamar laser vision correction.”

Duk waɗannan ma’anoni sun haɗu a kan cewa optics yana nazarin dukkan siffofin haske da hanyoyin amfani da shi, daga ilmin kimiyya zuwa aikace-aikace na yau da kullum. Wannan yana nuna cewa fannin yana da matukar amfani a ilimin kimiyya, fasaha, lafiya, da rayuwar yau da kullum.

Tarihin ilimin optics

Tarihin optics ya samo asali tun daga lokacin da ɗan Adam ya fara lura da haske da yadda gani ke faruwa. Tun kafin a samu kimiyyar zamani, mutane sun yi ƙoƙarin fahimtar yadda ido ke ganin abubuwa, yadda inuwa ke samuwa, da yadda madubi ke nuna hoto. A tsoffin al’ummomi kamar Misarawa, Babilon, da Girkawa, bincike kan haske ya fi karkata ga tunanin falsafa fiye da gwajin kimiyya. Wasu masana na ƙasar Girka sun yi imanin cewa gani yana faruwa ne saboda wani haske daga ido yana fita zuwa abu, yayin da wasu suka yi tunanin cewa haske daga waje ne ke shiga ido.

Babban sauyi ya faru a zamanin daular Musulunci, musamman ta hannun masanin kimiyya Ibn al-Haytham, wanda ake ɗauka a matsayin uban kimiyyar optics. Ya yi amfani da gwaje-gwaje maimakon zato, ya kuma tabbatar da cewa gani yana faruwa ne saboda haske daga abu yana shiga ido, ba wai haske daga ido yana fita ba. Ya yi cikakken bincike kan yadda haske ke tafiya a madaidaicin tsari, yadda yake lanƙwasuwa ko karkata a cikin ruwa ko gilashi, da yadda madubi ke nuna hoto. Littafinsa mai suna Book of Optics ya yi tasiri sosai a Turai, kuma ya zama ginshiƙi ga kimiyyar optics ta zamani.

A ƙarni na sha bakwai a Turai, bincike kan haske ya sake ɗaukar sabon salo. Masaninkimiyya Isaac Newton ya gabatar da ra’ayin cewa haske yana ƙunshe da ƙananan ƙwayoyi masu motsi. Ya nuna cewa farin haske yana ƙunshe da launuka daban-daban ta hanyar gwajin prism, kuma ya bayyana yadda launukan bakan gizo ke samuwa. Duk da wannan, wani masanin kimiyya daga Holland mai suna Christiaan Huygens ya yi jayayya cewa haske igiya ce da ke yaɗuwa kamar waves. Wannan ra’ayi ya fi bayyana abubuwa kamar diffraction da interference, wanda ya nuna cewa haske ba ƙwaya ba ne.

Daga baya binciken kimiyya ya nuna cewa haske yana da siffofi biyu a lokaci guda, wato yana iya nuna siffa ta igiya da kuma siffar ƙwaya. Wannan fahimta ta yi ƙarfi a farkon ƙarni na ashirin lokacin da Albert Einstein ya bayyana photoelectric effect, wanda ya nuna cewa haske yana ɗauke da ƙunshin makamashi da ake kira photons. Wannan bincike ya kafa tushen quantum physics da kuma sabon fannin da ake kira quantum optics, wanda ke nazarin yadda haske ke hulɗa da ƙwayoyin halitta a matakin microscopic.

A zamanin yau, optics ya zama babban ginshiƙi a fasahar zamani. An samu cigaba a fannoni kamar fasahar laser, fiber-optic, sadarwa, da na’urorin gani na likitanci. Sabbin fannoni kamar nanophotonics suna nazarin yadda haske ke aiki a matakin nanometer, yayin da integrated optics ke haɗa na’urorin haske a cikin ƙananan chips kamar yadda ake yi a electronics. Haka kuma metamaterials sun ba da damar sarrafa haske ta hanyoyin da ba a saba gani ba, har ma ana nazarin yiwuwar ɓoye abu ta hanyar karkatar da haske. Optical computing kuwa na neman maye gurbin lantarki da haske wajen sarrafa bayanai, domin haske yana iya tafiya da sauri sosai ba tare da zafi ko asarar makamashi mai yawa ba.

Siffofi da ka’idojin optics

Optics yana nazarin yadda haske ke hulɗa da abubuwa da muhalli ta hanyoyi daban-daban. Wannan hulɗa tana bayyana ta wasu manyan siffofin da ka’idoji waɗanda suke taimakawa wajen fahimtar yadda hotuna ke samuwa, yadda na’urorin gani ke aiki, da yadda haske ke bazuwa a sarari. Waɗannan siffofi su ne ginshiƙai na kimiyyar optics kuma ana amfani da su a fannoni kamar likitanci, sadarwa, daukar hoto, da binciken sararin samaniya.

• Reflection

Reflection yana nufin dawowar haske bayan ya bugi wani abu ko wani wuri mai santsi kamar madubi ko ruwa. Lokacin da haske ya bugi madubi, yana komawa a kusurwa daidai da kusurwar da ya zo da ita. Wannan ka’ida ce da ake kira dokar reflection. Saboda wannan ne ake iya ganin hoton mutum a madubi ko a saman ruwa. Reflection yana da matuƙar muhimmanci a na’urorin gani kamar telescopes da periscopes, inda ake amfani da madubai domin karkatar da haske zuwa inda ake so.

• Refraction

Refraction kuwa yana faruwa ne lokacin da haske ya wuce daga wani abu zuwa wani mai bambancin kauri ko nauyin gani, kamar daga iska zuwa ruwa ko gilashi. A lokacin ne hasken ke lanƙwasuwa saboda saurin tafiyarsa yana canjawa. Wannan shi ne dalilin da yasa sandar da aka saka a cikin ruwa take kama da ta lanƙwashe. Refraction yana da muhimmanci sosai a lenses, kamar waɗanda ake amfani da su a microscopes, cameras, da gilashin ido, domin shi ne ke ba da damar tarawa ko watsa haske domin samar da hoto mai kyau.

• Diffraction

Diffraction yana bayyana yadda haske ke bazuwa idan ya wuce ta wata ƙaramar ƙofa ko gefen wani abu. Idan ƙofar ta yi ƙanƙanta sosai, hasken ba zai wuce kai tsaye ba, sai ya bazu a gefe-gefe ya samar da wasu layuka ko zane na hasken da inuwa. Wannan yana nuna cewa haske na da siffar igiya. Diffraction yana da amfani wajen ƙirƙirar na’urorin kimiyya da kuma nazarin tsari na ƙwayoyin halitta a ilimin chemistry da physics.

• Interference

Interference yana faruwa ne lokacin da waves na haske biyu ko fiye suka haɗu. Idan suka haɗu a daidai yanayi, za su iya ƙara ƙarfi su samar da haske mai ƙarfi, ko kuma su ragi juna har su samar da inuwa. Wannan yana samar da zane mai kama da layuka masu haske da duhu. Interference yana da muhimmanci wajen fahimtar tsarin haske, kuma ana amfani da shi a na’urorin gwaje-gwaje da auna tsayin light waves.

• Polarization

Polarization yana nufin daidaita yadda light waves ke girgiza a hanya guda. Haske na al’ada yana girgiza a fannoni da dama, amma ta hanyar wasu matakai ana iya tilasta shi ya girgiza a hanya ɗaya kawai. Wannan ƙa’ida ce da ake amfani da ita a gilashin kariya daga hasken rana, a na’urorin ɗaukar hoto, da kuma a wasu na’urorin kimiyya domin rage hasken da ke hana gani.

• Scattering

Scattering yana bayyana yadda haske ke watsuwa idan ya bugi ƙananan ƙwayoyi a iska ko ruwa. Wannan shi ne dalilin da ya sa sararin sama yake shuɗi da rana, domin ƙwayoyin iska sun fi watsa hasken shuɗi. Haka kuma lokacin faɗuwar rana sararin sama yana zama ja ko launin lemo saboda hasken yana bi ta doguwar hanya a cikin iska. Scattering yana da muhimmanci a ilimin yanayi da kuma binciken sararin samaniya.

• Illumination

Illumination yana nufin yadda haske ke rarrabuwa domin haskaka wani wuri ko abu. Wannan ya haɗa da yadda ake tsara fitilu da hanyoyin watsa haske domin samar da gani mai kyau ba tare da inuwa mai yawa ko haske mai cutarwa ba. Ana amfani da wannan a gine-gine, daukar hoto, fina-finai, da kuma ƙirƙirar na’urorin haske.

Waɗannan siffofi da ka’idoji su ne tushen fahimtar yadda optics ke aiki a aikace. Ta hanyar su ne aka samu damar ƙirƙirar na’urori masu amfani da haske, fahimtar yanayin duniya da sararin samaniya, da kuma inganta fasahohin zamani da suka dogara da haske.

Rabe-raben Optics

Optics yana rabuwa zuwa manyan sassa uku waɗanda ke mayar da hankali kan siffofi daban-daban na haske da hanyoyin nazarinsa: Physical Optics, Geometric Optics, da Quantum Optics. Kowanne kashi yana da tushen ka’idoji na musamman da aikace-aikace masu yawa, kuma fahimtar su yana da matukar muhimmanci ga masu nazarin physics, engineering, da fannin kiwon lafiya.

Physical Optics

Physical Optics ɓangare ne na optics da ke nazarin haske a matsayin tiririn wave. Wannan reshe yana mayar da hankali kan abubuwan da ba za a iya bayyanawa kawai ta tartsatsi ba, wanda ke haɗa da:

• Interference: Misali, ana amfani da wannan ka’ida wajen ƙirƙirar anti-reflective coatings a gilashin lens.
• Diffraction: Wannan ka’ida tana da amfani wajen tsara telescopes da microscopes, musamman wajen rage matsalolin resolution.
• Polarization. Misali, polarized sunglasses suna barin haske na tsaye kawai, suna hana glare daga ruwa ko titi.
• Scattering: Hasken da ke gamuwa da ƙura ko abubuwan marasa tsari a iska yana lanƙwasa zuwa sassa daban-daban. Dalilin da ya sa sama ta kasance shuɗi, saboda blue light tana yaɗuwa fiye da sauran launuka.

A physical optics, haske yana da siffofi biyu na asali, wato yana tafiya a matsayin wave da particle (photon), kuma ana amfani da ka’idojin wave da interference wajen ƙirƙira da nazarin lasers, holography, da fiber optics.

Geometric optics

Geometric Optics shi ɓangare ne da ke nazarin haske a matsayin tartsatsi, inda ake yin la’akari da tafiyar da haske kawai ba tare da la’akari da siffofin wave ba. Wannan yana da amfani wajen fahimtar mirorrs, lenses, da optical instruments a rayuwa ta yau da kullum.

• Reflection: Ana amfani da geometric optics wajen fahimtar yadda haske ke dawowa daga saman mirror. Misali, plane mirrors suna samar da virtual image a bayan mirror, yayin da convex da concave mirrors ke samar da real ko virtual images dangane da matsayin abu.
• Refraction: Lokacin da haske ya shiga wani abu daban da farko, yana canja saurin tafiyarsa kuma yana karkata. Wannan yana bin Snell’s Law:

nᵢ · sin θᵢ = nₜ · sin θₜ

inda nᵢ shi ne refractive index na medium na farko, θᵢ shi ne angle na incidence, nₜ shi ne refractive index na medium na biyu, θₜ shi ne angle na transmitted ray. Wannan tsarin yana taimakawa wajen ƙirƙirar corrective lenses, microscopes, da telescopes.

• Magnification da minification: Geometric optics yana bayyana yadda lenses da mirrors ke haifar da hotuna masu girma ko ƙanƙanta. Wannan yana da amfani sosai ga na’urorin microscopy da telescopy, inda ake buƙatar ganin ƙananan ƙwayoyin halitta ko taurari na nesa sosai.

Geometric optics yana da sauƙin fahimta saboda yana amfani da ray diagrams, wanda ke nuna hanyar tafiyar haske da wurin samuwar hotuna.

Quantum optics

Quantum Optics reshe ne na optics da ke amfani da ka’idojin quantum mechanics domin fahimtar siffofin photons da sauran zarraƙai na haske. Wannan reshe yana mai da hankali kan particle nature na haske, wanda ba a iya bayyanawa da wave theory kawai ba.

• Photon concept: Quantum optics yana duba haske a matsayin photons, wato zarraƙan makamashi masu ɗauke da energy E =fh, inda h shi ne Planck’s constant, f shi ne frequency na haske.

Wannan reshe yana da amfani a fannonin quantum computing, fasahar laser, fiber-optic sadarwa, ɗaukar hoton likitanci, da metrology.

Quantum optics ya zama tushen fasahar laser, photonics, da nanophotonics, wanda ke ƙara ba da damar ƙirƙira optical circuits, quantum sensors, da high-precision measurements.

Amfanin optics a fannoni daban-daban

Optics yana da matukar muhimmanci a rayuwar yau da kullum da kuma ci gaban kimiyya da fasaha. Fahimtar siffofin haske da amfani da ka’idojin optics sun haifar da ingantattun na’urori da hanyoyin aiki a fannonin daban-daban kamar kula da lafiyar idanu, likitanci, sadarwa, kimiyyar sararin samaniya, fasahar hoto, da masana’antu.

Kula da lafiyar idanu (vision care)

A fannin kula da gani, optics yana taimakawa wajen gano matsalolin ido da kuma gyara su. Optometrists suna amfani da ka’idojin refraction da lenses domin auna ƙarfin gani da bayar da na’urorin gani kamar gilashi ko contact lenses. Ophthalmologists suna amfani da na’urorin optical masu nagarta, ciki har da wave-front analyzers da laser instruments, wajen yin tiyatar gyaran ido kamar LASIK.

Bugu da ƙari, masana’antar optical tana ƙirƙirar lenses na zamani, kamar multifocal lenses da intraocular implants, wanda ke taimakawa wajen inganta lafiyar gani ga marasa lafiya masu matsalolin ido. Wannan yana da matukar tasiri wajen rage dogaro ga gilashi da kuma haɓaka ingancin rayuwa.

Likitanci

A fannin likitanci, optics yana da amfani a wajen gwaje-gwaje, bayar da magani, da kuma bincike. Misali:

• Lasers: Ana amfani da su wajen gyaran fata, tiyatar ido, da kuma cire ƙwayoyin cuta a cikin jiki.
• Fiber-optic endoscopy: Na’ura ce da ke amfani da fiber-optics domin duba ciki, hanta, da sauran sassan jiki ba tare da yin manyan tiyata ba, wanda ake kira minimally invasive surgery (MIS).
• Medical imaging: Ka’idojin optics suna tallafawa tsarin MRI, CT scans, da laser imaging, wanda ke ba da damar ganin tsarin cikin jiki cikin cikakken bayani.

Bugu da ƙari, optical sensors suna taimakawa wajen gano sinadarai da yanayin jiki cikin sauri da inganci.

Sadarwa

Optics yana taka muhimmiyar rawa a fannin sadarwa ta zamani, musamman ta hanyar sadarwar fiber-optic.

• Fiber-optic cables: Ana amfani da su wajen isar da bayanai zuwa nesa sosai a ba tare da kutsen wani abu ba. Sun haɗa nahiyoyi da dubban kilomita na cables a karkashin teku.
• Laser transmitters da photodiodes: Suna aikawa da karɓar haske a cikin fiber-optic networks, wanda ke tabbatar da sauri, amincin bayanai, da high bandwidth.

Wannan tsarin ya zama tushen Internet, TV kabel, da fasahar sadarwa, wanda ke haɓaka haɗin kai a duniya baki ɗaya.

Ilmin taurari da sararin samaniya

A fannin astronomy, optics yana da matukar amfani wajen fahimtar sararin samaniya:

• Telescopes: Suna amfani da lenses da mirrors domin ganin taurari, galaxies, da sauran abubuwa masu nisa sosai.
• Measurement of distances: Ka’idojin optics suna taimakawa wajen auna tazara tsakanin taurari a cikin light-years, ta hanyar amfani da refraction, diffraction, da polarization.
• Space observation: Optical systems a satellites da space telescopes kamar Hubble suna ba da damar samun hotuna masu kyau da cikakken bayani, ba tare da shafar yanayin iska ba. Optics yana ba da damar analysis na spectra, wanda ke taimakawa wajen gano sinadarai da yanayin taurari da galaxies.

Photography

A fannin photography, optics yana tabbatar da inganci da daidaito na hotuna:

• Camera lenses: Ana amfani da ka’idojin refraction da magnification wajen yin hoto mai kyau da sharpness.
• Optical filters: Sun taimaka wajen rage glare, gyara launuka, da kuma haɓaka contrast a hotuna.
• Digital imaging sensors: Ka’idojin optics suna tallafawa sensors na kamara domin fassara photons zuwa hotuna masu inganci.

Masana’antu

A fannin masana’antu, optics yana da amfani wajen:

• Precision manufacturing: Lasers da optical sensors suna amfani wajen cutting, engraving, da auna abubuwa daidai da tsarin da ake so.
• Quality control: Optical instruments suna gano ƙananan lahani ko canje-canje a kayan aiki, wanda ke rage kuskure da haɓaka inganci.

 Na’urorin optics

Na’urorin optics su ne kayan aiki da aka ƙera ta amfani da ka’idojin ilmin haske domin gani, auna abubuwa, sadarwa, bincike, da kuma sarrafa makamashin haske. Wadannan na’urori suna amfani da siffofin haske kamar refraction, reflection, diffraction, da polarization domin su yi aiki yadda ya kamata. Muhimman na’urorin optics sun haɗa da telescopes, microscopes, lasers, fiber-optic cables, da optical sensors, tare da sauran kayan aikin da ake amfani da su a fannoni daban-daban na kimiyya da fasaha.

• Telescopes

Telescopes na’urori ne da ake amfani da su domin ganin abubuwa masu nisa sosai, musamman taurari da galaxies a sararin samaniya. Suna aiki ne ta hanyar tara haske daga wani abu mai nisa sannan su mayar da shi zuwa hoto mai girma a bayyane. Akwai nau’o’i daban-daban na telescopes, ciki har da refracting telescope wanda ke amfani da lenses, da reflecting telescope wanda ke amfani da mirrors. Manyan telescopes na zamani suna amfani da haɗin lenses da mirrors domin rage matsalolin diffraction da kuma inganta ingancin hoto. Akwai kuma space telescopes da ake kaiwa sararin samaniya domin kauce wa tasirin yanayin duniya ga haske.

• Microscopes

Microscopes na’urori ne da ake amfani da su domin ganin ƙananan abubuwa da ba za a iya gani da ido kawai ba, kamar ƙwayoyin halitta, bacteria, da tsarin cikin ƙwayar halitta. Optical microscopes suna amfani da lenses domin ƙara girman hoto (magnification) ta hanyar refraction na haske. Akwai compound microscopes da ke amfani da lenses da yawa domin samun girma mai yawa, da stereo microscopes da ke ba da hoto mai kama da na zahiri (three-dimensional). Microscopes sun taka muhimmiyar rawa a fannin likitanci, biology, da binciken kimiyya.

• Lasers

Laser na’ura ce da ke samar da haske mai ƙarfi, mai daidaito, kuma mai tafiya a hanya guda. Laser yana aiki ne ta hanyar fitar da photons masu daidaito daga wani abu mai kuzari. Akwai nau’o’in lasers daban-daban kamar gas lasers, solid-state lasers, semiconductor lasers, da fiber lasers. Ana amfani da lasers a fannoni da dama, ciki har da tiyata a likitance, sadarwa ta fiber-optic, bincike na kimiyya, da kuma masana’antu wajen yankan abubuwa da daidaito sosai.

• Fiber-optic cables

Fiber-optic cables su ne igiyoyi ko zaruruwa na musamman da aka yi da gilashi ko filastik masu matukar tsafta, wanda ke iya tafiyar da haske a cikinsu zuwa nesa sosai. Suna aiki ne ta hanyar total internal reflection, inda haske ke tafiya a cikin fiber ba tare da fita waje ba. Ana amfani da fiber-optics sosai a fannin sadarwar zamani, musamman a internet, wayar tarho, da watsa bayanai tsakanin nahiyoyi. Suna da fa’ida saboda suna da sauri, suna da kariya daga electromagnetic interference, kuma suna iya watsa bayanai masu yawa.

• Opticals ensors

Optical sensors na’urori ne da ke gano canje-canje a haske domin auna yanayi ko gano wani abu. Suna iya gano zafi, motsi, matsin lamba, ko sinadarai ta hanyar lura da yadda haske ke canjawa. Ana amfani da su a masana’antu domin kula da ingancin kayayyaki, a likitanci domin na’urorin gwaji, da kuma a tsarin tsaro kamar motion detectors. Fiber-optic sensors ma suna amfani wajen lura da yanayin gine-gine, gadoji, da bututun mai domin gano matsaloli kafin su zama babba.

• Sauran na’urorin optics

Baya ga wadannan, akwai sauran na’urorin optics masu muhimmanci kamar cameras, binoculars, spectrometers, optical prisms, da photodetectors. Cameras suna amfani da lenses domin samar da hotuna, binoculars suna taimakawa wajen gani daga nesa, spectrometers suna nazarin launukan haske domin gano sinadarai, yayin da prisms ke raba haske zuwa launuka daban-daban. Photodetectors kuma suna mayar da haske zuwa siginar lantarki domin amfani a na’urorin sadarwa da bincike.

Manazarta

Hecht, E. (2024). Optics. Encyclopaedia Britannica.

NASA. (2023, May 10). What is light? NASA

Physics Tutorial: Wavelike Behaviors of Light. (n.d.). Physical Classroom

EBSCO (n.d.). Optics | Science | Research Starters | EBSCO Research

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