Genetics

Genetics, wani fanni ne na ilimin kimiyyar rayuwa da ke nazarin yadda halaye, siffofi, cututtuka da salon tsarin jiki ke yaɗuwa daga iyaye zuwa ’ya’ya ta hanyar ƙwayoyin halitta. Wannan fanni yana binciken abubuwan da ke ƙunshe a cikin DNA, wato zayyanannen tsarin bayanan halitta na kowace nau’in halitta, daga mutane zuwa tsirrai, dabbobi da ƙwayoyin halitta masu sauƙin tsari.

Ganin cewa mutane, ko da kuwa suna da bambance-bambancen harshe, launin fata, tsawo, ko halayen dabi’a, dukkansu suna gado ne ta hanyar ƙananan rukunai da ake kira kwayoyin gado wato (genes). Waɗannan kwayoyi ne ke ɗauke da umarnin gina kwayoyin halittar jiki, girman mutum, yadda gabobi ke aiki, da irin martanin da jikinsa zai bayar ga cututtuka ko muhalli.

Gadon ƙwayar halitta ya zama ginshiƙin binciken kimiyya na zamani, saboda yana ba da amsar tambayoyi masu muhimmanci kamar: Me ya sa wasu cututtuka ke kasancewa a cikin dangi? Ta yaya jinsin dabba ko tsiro ke samun sabon launi? Me ya sa mutane ba su zama iri ɗaya ba duk da kasancewar su jinsi ɗaya? Haka kuma, genetics ya buɗe ƙofofin sabbin hanyoyin magani, kiwon lafiya, cututtukan gado, noma, kiwon dabbobi, gano asalin tarihi da kuma binciken laifuka.

A wannan zamani ilimin gadon halitta ya wuce kawai nazarin iyaye da ’ya’ya, ya koma ga fahimtar ƙwayoyin halittar mutum gabaɗaya (genomics), sarrafa su ta hanyoyin biotechnology da kuma gyarawa ko canja su ta hanyoyin zamani irin su CRISPR. Saboda haka, genetics ya zama fanni mai tasiri a rayuwar ɗan Adam, tattalin arziki, tsaro, noma, kiwon lafiya da ci gaban ilimi.

Tarihin bunkasar genetics

Fannin genetics yana da dogon tarihi wanda ya samo asali tun lokacin da mutane suka fara lura da yadda siffofi ke gaduwa daga iyaye zuwa ’ya’ya. A da, mutane sun yi amfani da ƙwarewarsu wajen noma da kiwon dabbobi, suna zaɓar iri da dabbobi masu kyau don haɓaka amfanin gona ko ƙarfi da lafiya. Wannan shi ne tushen farko na ilimin genetics, kodayake ba tare da sun san sunadarai ko DNA ba.

Ma’anar wasu kalmomi

Genetics (gadon halitta): Fannin kimiyya ne da ke nazarin yadda halaye, siffofi da bayanan ƙwayoyin halitta ke wucewa daga iyaye zuwa ’ya’ya, da yadda ake canjawa a zuri’a.

Gene (ƙwayar gado): Ƙananan sassa ne da ke cikin DNA waɗanda ke ɗauke da umarnin gina sinadarai da jiki ke buƙata, kamar launin ido, nau’in jini, ko tsawon jiki.

DNA — Deoxyribonucleic Acid (Bayanan ƙwayar halitta): Wannan shi ne ayyanannen tsarin bayanan halitta da ke ƙunshe a cikin ƙwayoyin jiki. DNA na ɗauke da bayanan da ake buƙata domin gina jiki, kula da rayuwa da gudanar da ayyukan gaɓoɓi.

Chromosome (Rumbun bayanan halitta): Tarin DNA ne da aka nannaɗe cikin tsari domin sauƙaƙa adanawa. Mutum na da chromosomes 46, rabinsu daga uwa, rabinsu daga uba.

Genome (Dukkan bayanan halittar halitta): Jimillar dukkan genes da bayanan DNA da wani tsiro, dabba ko mutum yake da su.

Inheritance (Gado): Yadda halaye ko cututtuka ke bi daga iyaye zuwa zuri’a ta hanyar chromosomes da genes.

Variation (bambanci): Canje-canje ko bambancin halayen da ake samu tsakanin mutane ko halittu, ko da suna cikin jinsi guda.

Muhimmancin genetics

Fahimtar jiki da rayuwar ɗan Adam

Genetics yana bayyana yadda jikin mutane yake ginuwa, girma, yin aiki, kare kansa daga cututtuka da kuma martani ga magunguna. Wannan ya sa kimiyya ta fi fahimtar asalinsa da tsarin halittarsa.

Kiwon lafiya da magance cututtuka

Yana taimakawa wajen gano cututtukan gado kamar sickle cell, cystic fibrosis ko wasu cututtukan kansa. Likitoci na iya gano haɗari tun kafin cuta ta bayyana, su ba da shawara kan rigakafi ko gyara tsarin rayuwa.

Cigaban noma da kiwon dabbobi

A fannin noma, ana amfani da genetics wajen zaɓar iri masu ɗorewa, masu samar da riba, masu jure fari, sanyi ko ƙwari. Haka kuma a kiwon dabbobi ana gina jinsuna masu ƙarfi, kiwon lafiya da yawan haihuwa.

Fannin binciken laifi

Binciken DNA na taimakawa wajen gano masu laifi, tabbatar da shaidun laifi, gano gawar da ba a san ko ta wa ba ce, da tabbatar da nasabar iyali.

Nazarin tarihi da asalin mutane

Genetics yana ba da damar gano hijirar ƙabilu, asalin jinsuna, da yadda mutane suka yaɗu a doron ƙasa tun kakanni.

Cigaban ilimin kimiyya da fasaha

Sabbin fasahohi kamar genomics, cloning, CRISPR da biotechnology sun samo tushe ne daga fahimtar gidauniyar genetics, wanda ke buɗe sabbin hanyoyi na magani, gona da masana’antu.

Mendelian Genetics (Ka’idojin Gado na Mendel)

Gregor Johann Mendel, wani malami, manomi kuma masanin kimiyya dan ƙasar Austria, shi ne wanda ya kafa tushen ilimin gadon halitta a ƙarshen ƙarni na 19. Ya yi dogon bincike a kan tsiron pea plant, inda ya lura da sauye-sauyen wasu halaye kamar:

• Launin furanni (fari ko shuɗi)
• Tsawon tsiro (dogaye ko gajeru)
• Siffar iri (santsi ko lanƙwasa).

Mendel ya yi gwaje-gwaje sama da shekaru bakwai, yana haɗa shuke-shuke daban-daban don ganin halayen da za su bayyana a jikin ‘ya’yan. Daga nan ne ya gina ka’idoji na farko da suka zama ginshiƙin genetics.

Gene, Allele, Genotype da Phenotype

A binciken Mendel, ya fahimci cewa akwai abubuwa biyu da ke sarrafa halaye:

Gene: Shi ne yake ɗauke da bayanin halittar halaye.

Alleles: Iri-iri na gene guda ɗaya, misali: Launin ido na iya kasancewa shuɗi ko baƙi ko brown.

Genotype: Tsarin alleles da mutum ko halitta ke da shi, misali: BB, Bb, bb.

Phenotype: Halayen da ake iya gani ko lura da su, misali: Idan ido ya zama shuɗi ko baƙi, tsawon jiki, launin furen wake.

Dokokin Mendel na Gado

• Law of Segregation

A lokacin samar da maniyyi ko ƙwari, alleles guda biyu da mutum ko dabba ke da su suna rarrabuwa, ɗaya ya shiga gamete ɗaya. Saboda haka ɗa yana gadon allele ɗaya daga uwa da guda ɗaya daga uba. Misali:

1. Idan uwa Bb ce, tana iya ba da B ko b.
2. Idan uba Bb ne, shi ma zai iya ba B ko b.

• Law of Dominance

Idan allele ɗaya ya fi ƙarfin ɗaya, to shi ne zai bayyana a phenotype. Ana kiran mai rinjaye da dominant, ana kiran wanda bai rinjaya ba da recessive. Misali:

1. B (baƙin ido) dominant ne,
2. b (shuɗin ido) recessive ne. Saboda haka Bb zai bayyana da baƙin ido.

• Law of IndependentAssortment

Genes da ke sarrafa halaye daban-daban suna wucewa ga zuri’a ba tare da rinjayar juna ba, muddin suna kan chromosomes daban-daban. Misali:

• Launin furanni da tsawon tsiro ba dole ne su haɗu a hanya ɗaya ba.

Punnett Square

Punnett square hanya ce ta kimantawa yadda alleles za su haɗu idan aka haifi ɗa. Misali idan iyaye biyu Bb ne:
BbBBBBbbBbbb

Sakamako:

• 25% BB,
• 50% Bb,
• 25% bb.

Amma phenotypes:

• 75% za su nuna halin dominant
• 25% recessive.

Mahimmancin ƙa’idojin Mendel

• Sun kafa tushen duk binciken gadon halitta na zamani.
• Sun ba da haske kan yadda cututtuka ke yaɗuwa a cikin iyalai.
• Sun taimaka wajen kiwon dabbobi da noma cikin ilimi, ba hasashe ba.
• Sun ɗora ginin genomics, biotechnology da magungunan zamani.
• DNA da tsarin kwayar halitta

Mene ne DNA?

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) shi ne babban sinadari da ke tattare da bayanan halittar kowace rayayyar halitta. Yana ɗauke da rubutaccen tsarin da jiki ke bi wajen gina ƙwayoyin halitta, sarrafa ayyukan gaɓoɓi, girma, haihuwa, gyaran raunuka, da kare kai daga cututtuka. Za a iya kwatanta DNA da littafin sharuɗa ko ajandar bayanai da jikin halitta ke amfani da ita tun daga haihuwa har zuwa mutuwa.

DNA yana cikin kowace ƙwayar halittar jiki (cells) in ban da a ƙwayoyin jini ja, domin ba su da ƙwayoyin nucleus.

Tsarin DNA

DNA yana da siffar tsani mai lanƙwasa biyu (double helix). Wannan tsani yana ɗauke da:

• Backbone – wanda ya ƙunshi sinadarin phosphate da sukrose (sugar-phosphate chain).
• Nitrogenous bases – waɗanda suke ɗaure a tsakiya, su ne ke ɗauke da bayanan gado.

Yadda DNA ke ginuwa

DNA yana ginuwa daga ƙananan bangarori da ake kira nucleotides. Kowanne nucleotide yana da:

• Sugar (deoxyribose)
• Phosphate group

Ɗaya daga cikin nitrogenous bases guda huɗu. Waɗannan bases su ne:

• Adenine (A)
• Thymine (T)
• Cytosine (C)
• Guanine (G)

Ana haɗa su ne bisa ƙa’ida:

• A tana ɗaure da T
• C tana ɗaure da G

Wannan tsarin haɗuwa ne ke sa bayanan DNA su kasance daidai, ba tare da tangarɗa ba.

Genes a cikin DNA

A tsawon DNA, akwai yankuna da ake kira genes, waɗanda suke ɗauke da bayanan da ke umartar jikin mutum ya samar da proteins. Misali:

• Gene na iya sarrafa launin ido
• Wani gene na iya sarrafa yadda koda ko hanta ke aiki
• Wani kuma yana takaita girman yatsa ko tsawon mutum.
• Kowane ɗan Adam yana da kimanin genes fiye da 20,000.
• Mene ne aikin chromosomes?

DNA ba ya ba baje yake ba, ana nannaɗe shi cikin tsari mai ƙarfi da ake kira chromosome. Chromosomes suna cikin nucleus na ƙwayoyin halitta. Mutum yana da:

• Chromosomes 46
• Wato 23 daga uwa + 23 daga uba

Cikinsu har da chromosomes na jima’i:

• XX a mata,
• XY a maza.

Chromosomes su ne ke tantance jinsin mutum, gado, tsarin jiki, da wasu cututtuka na musamman.

Yadda DNA ke replication

A lokacin da kwayar jiki ke rabuwa, DNA ma yana ninkawa. Ana buɗe igiyoyin biyu, kowacce na samar da sabuwar ƙawarta. Wannan yana tabbatar da cewa duk sabbin ƙwayoyin halitta suna da bayanan halitta iri ɗaya. Wannan tsarin ne ke sa bayanan halitta ya ci gaba cikin sauƙi daga ƙwaya zuwa ƙwaya.

DNA da Protein Synthesis

Ayyukan jiki da halayen halitta ba DNA kaɗai ke yi ba, yana ba da umarni ne ga jiki ya samar da proteins ta matakai biyu:

• Transcription – DNA yana haifar da mRNA a cikin nucleus.
• Translation – mRNA tana tafiya zuwa ribosomes inda ake gina protein.

Proteins su ne ginshiƙan jiki:

• gashi
• fata
• tsoka
• enzymes
• hormones
• antibodies.

Saboda haka sauyin DNA yana iya shafar aiki ko siffar jiki.

Genome

Genome shi ne jimillar dukkan bayanan DNA da genes da halitta ke da su. Genome ɗin mutum yana ɗauke da:

• adadin DNA kusan biliyan 3
• sama da 99.9% na genome ɗin dukkan mutane iri ɗaya ne.
• Bambancin 0.1% ne ke haifar da bambance-bambancen launin ido, tsawo, salo, juriya ga cututtuka da ayyukan enzymes.

Muhimmancin fahimtar DNA

• Gano cututtukan gado
• Samar da magungunan zamani
• Binciken laifuka ta DNA profiling
• Samar da irin noma mai ƙarfi
• Fahimtar tarihin bil’adama
• Nazarin juyin halitta (evolution)
• Inganta kiwon lafiya na mutum ɗaya.

Variation & Inheritance

Ma’anar variation

Variation yana nufin bambance-bambancen siffofi, halaye, tsarin jiki ko dabi’u da ake samu tsakanin mutane ko sauran halittu duk da cewa suna cikin jinsi ɗaya. Wannan bambanci shi ne ke sa mutane ba su zama ɗaya tsawon rai ba. Wani ya fi dogo, wani ya fi gajere, wasu suna da launin ido daban-daban, launin fata, sautin murya ko tsarin tafiya. Variation shi ne tushen bambancin bil’adama da rayuwa a duniya.

Nau’ukan variation

Genetic variation (bambancin gado)

Ana gadon wannan ne ta chromosome daga iyaye zuwa ’ya’ya. Yana faruwa saboda:

• bambancin alleles
• cakuɗa da musayar sassa a lokacin samar da gametes (crossing over)
• haɗuwar chromosomes daga uwa da uba
• canje-canje a genes.

Misalai:

• launin ido
• nau’in jini (A, B, AB, O)
• yanayin gashi mai lanƙwasa ko madaidaici
• tsayin mutum

juriya ga wasu cututtuka.

Wannan shi ne nau’in variation da ke bin ka’idojin Mendel da sauran dokokin genetics.

Environmental variation (bambancin da muhalli ke haifarwa)

Wannan bambanci yana faruwa ne sakamakon tasirin muhalli, ba wai gado ba. Abubuwan muhalli sun haɗa da:

• abinci
• yanayi
• motsa jiki
• cututtuka
• magunguna
• tarbiyya da zamantakewa.

Misalai:

• mutum mai gado na tsawo na iya zama gajere idan ya taso da ƙarancin samun kayan gina jiki
• launin fata na iya duhu ko haskakawa sakamakon hasken rana
• jiki zai iya ƙaruwa da nauyi saboda nau’in abinci.

Combined variation (haɗuwar biyun)

Wasu halaye na fitowa ne sakamakon haɗuwar bambancin gado da na muhalli. Wato mutum yana gadon damar samun halin, amma muhalli ne ke ƙayyade yadda zai bayyana. Misalai:

• ilimi da basira; akwai gado, akwai tasirin tarbiyya
• ƙarfi da yanayin jiki
• tallafi ko girman murya.

Inheritance

Gado yana faruwa ne lokacin da uwa da uba ke ba zuriya chromosomes 23-23, wato jimillar 46. A cikin waɗannan chromosomes akwai genes masu ɗauke da bayanan halitta. Saboda haka duk wani ɗa yana rike da:

• rabin bayanan halitta daga uwa,
• rabin daga uba.
• Haɗuwar alleles daga iyaye shi ke tantance halin da zai bayyana a phenotype.

Mutation da Variation

Mutation canji ne da kan faru a cikin DNA. Yana iya kasancewa:

• mara illa
• mai amfani
• mai haddasa cuta.

Mutations na iya haifar da:

• sabon launin ido ko gashi
• juriya ga cuta
• ciwon gado (misali sickle cell).

Duk da haka, mutations su ma tushen cigaban juyin halitta ne.

Manazarta

National Human Genome Research Institute.  (2025, February 24).  Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) fact sheet.

Chial, H. (2008). Mendelian genetics: Patterns of inheritance and single-gene disorders. Nature Education.

National Human Genome Research Institute.  (2025, March 19). The Human Genome Project. 

National Human Genome Research Institute. (2025, March 31). Division of Genome Sciences.

Tarihin Wallafa Maƙalar

Wallafawa: 9 April, 2024

Sabuntawa: 24 November, 2025

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